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1. Introduction - Rohan Gunaratna

2. Al Qaeda: Goals, Grand Strategy and Operational Art - Ahmed Hashim

1. Michael Ignatieff, Guardian (1 October 2001) . Also quoted in Thomas Scheffler, ‘‘Apocalyticism, Innerworldly Eschatology, and Islamic Extremism’’ (online).
2. The operations and tactics of al-Qaida will be included in my forthcoming larger work.
3. For more on al-Qaida’s origins and evolution, see the following. Anon., Through Our Enemies’ Eyes: Osama Bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America (Washington, D.C: Brassey’s, 2002), pp. 77–195. Peter Bergen, Holy War, Inc: Inside
the Secret World of Osama Bin Laden (New York: Free Press, 2001). Thomas Wandinger, ‘‘Das Terrornetzwerk El Kaida unter Usama bin Laden,’’ Politische Meinung, No. 385 (December 2001): 57–65.
4. For biographical details see Al-Watan al-Arabi, ‘‘A Biography of Osama Bin Laden,’’ Frontline (12 September 2001) at www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/ shows/Binladen/who/bio.html . See also Florent Blanc, Ben Laden et l’Amerique
(Paris: Bayard, 2001).
5. Quoted in Independent (6 December 1993): 1.
6. Quoted in ‘‘Osama bin Laden v. the U.S.: Edicts and Statements,’’ Frontline.
7. Ibid.
8. See Olivier Roy, ‘‘Une fondamentalisme sunnite en panne de projet politique,’’ Monde Diplomatique (October 1998): 8–9. See also Ahmed Rashid, ‘‘Les Talibans au coeur de la de´stabilization regionale,’’ Monde Diplomatique (November 1999): 4–5.
9. See Mark Huband, Warriors of the Prophet: The Struggle for Islam (Boulder, Col.: Westview, 1998), pp. 1–4.
10. Ahmed Hashim, ‘‘Al-Qaeda’s Operational Art and Tactics’’ (unpublished).
11. Bernard Lewis, ‘‘License to Kill: Usama Bin Laden’s Declaration of Jihad,’’ Foreign Affairs (November–December 1998): 14.
12. ‘‘Osama Bin Laden v. the U.S.: Edicts and Statements.’’
13. Declaration of War (1, 2, 3). Alternative link http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden%27s_Declaration_of_War
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Al Quds al-Arabi (27 November 1996): 5.
18. John Miller, ‘‘A Conversation with the Most Dangerous Man in the World,’’ Esquire 131 (February 1999): 96.
19. Time (11 January 1999): 16.
20. Ibid.
21. Quoted in Lewis, ‘‘License to Kill,’’ p. 15.
22. Doha Al-Jazeera Television (8 October 2002).
23. Jihad Online News Network (8 December 2002).
24. Jang (18 November 1998): 1, 7.
25. Independent (10 July 1996): 14 (interview).
26. Ibid.
27. Al Quds al-Arabi (27 November 1996): 5.
28. Al-Jazeera (Doha) (11 February 2003) (accessed online).
29. Ibid.
30. Dubai Al-’Arabiyah Television (11 June 2004).
31. Doha Al-Jazeera Television (24 February 2004).
32. ‘‘Transcript of Bin Laden’s October Interview (5 February 2002) (accessed online).
33. Quoted in Washington Post (7 October 2001).
34. Qoqaz (Internet) (11 October 2002).
35. This is a superficial analysis of a topic as complex as grand strategy, but it suffices for our purposes in this chapter. I have relied heavily on the following works. Richard Rosecrance and Arthur Stein (eds.), The Domestic Bases of Grand Strategy (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993), pp. 3–21. Lars Skalnes, Politics, Markets, and Grand Strategy: Foreign Economic Policies as Strategic Instruments (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000), pp. 1–14.
36. Gwynn Roberts, interview with Osama bin Laden, Channel 4 Network (London) (20 February 1997).
37. For early interactions between Christendom and Islam, see Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (New York: Norton, 1982).
38. For the history of the Crusades, see Peter Partner, God of Battles: Holy Wars of Christianity and Islam (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997). See also Stanley Lane-Poole, Saladin and the Fall of Jerusalem (London: Greenhill, 2002).
39. Agence France Presse (27 December 2001).
40. Al Quds al-Arabi (28 November 2002): 1.
41. Sadik al-’Azm, ‘‘Time Out of Joint: Western Dominance, Islamist Terror, and the Arab Imagination,’’ Boston Review (October–November 2004): 7.
42. For Muslim reformism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Antony Black, The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present (New York: Routledge, 2001), pp. 255–307 . For military reform in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century, see David Ralston, Importing the European Army: The Introduction of European Military Techniques and Institutions
into the Extra-European World, 1600–1914 (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1996), pp. 43–79.
43. Jeremy Bowen, Six Days: How the 1967 War Shaped the Middle East (London: Simon and Schuster, 2004), pp. 13–14, 39–40.
44. See Bassam Tibi, The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), p. 7.
45. Quoted in Black, The History of Islamic Political Thought.
46. ‘‘Enemies Within, Enemies Without,’’ Economist (22 September 2001): 20–21.
47. ‘‘Self-Doomed to Failure,’’ Economist (6 July 2002): 24–26. See also Washington Post (27 February 2003): 20.
48. I will discuss the writings of the two other important Islamist men of action— ’Abdullah ‘Azzam and Ayman al-Zawahiri—in my forthcoming book.
49. Quoted in Asaf Hussain, Political Terrorism and the State in the Middle East (London: Mansell, 1988), p. 86.
50. For a study of al-Farag, see Johannes Jansen, The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat’s Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 182–190.
51. See Sami Hajjar, ‘‘Political Violence in Islam: Fundamentalism and Jihad,’’ Small Wars and Insurgencies (Winter 1995): 335.
52. The same analogy is encountered in Gilles Kepel, Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and the Pharaoh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 12.
53. Quoted in Time (11 January 1999): 16.
54. Quoted in ‘‘America Must Leave the Lands of Islam,’’ at http://www.megastories.com/modules.php?op=modload& name=News&file=article&sid=45
55. Doha Al-Jazeera Television (21 May 2003).
56. Declaration of War (1).
57. Cited in Lewis, ‘‘License to Kill,’’ p. 15.
58. Quoted in Hussain, Political Terrorism and the State in the Middle East.
59. Dankwart Rustow, ‘‘Political Ends and Military Means in the Late Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Middle East.’’ In V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp (eds.), War, Technology, and Society in the Middle East (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 386.
60. Al-Jazeera (Doha) (18 April 2002) (accessed online).
61. Quoted in Miller, ‘‘A Conversation.’’
62. The text of the interview appeared later on Jihad Online News Network (21 January 2003) (accessed online).
63. Al Quds al-Arabi (27 November 1996), p. 5. See also his interview with Robert Fisk: Independent (22 March 1997): 1 (in which he expresses the Maoist idea that ‘‘America is a paper tiger’’).
64. Abu ‘Ubayd al-Qurashi (pseudonym), ‘‘Al-Qaeda and the Art of War,’’ Al-Ansar (15 January 2002): 11–15. From Foreign Broadcasting Information Service—Near East/South Asia (15 January 2002) (accessed online).
65. Center for Islamic Studies and Research, posted on the Web (6 December 2002), accessed at http://www.megastories.com/modules.php?op= modload&name=News&file=article&sid=47

66. Quoted in Yassin Musharbash, ‘‘Change of Strategy: The New Al-Qa’ida Doctrine,’’ Spiegel (18 March 2004) (accessed online). 67. ‘‘Interview: Osama Bin Laden,’’ May 1998, at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/ pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/interview.html .
68. Ibid.
69. Al-Jazeera (Doha) (12 November 2002) (accessed online).
70. See Ahmed S. Hashim, ‘‘Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Iraq’’ (2004) (unpublished).
71. The burgeoning literature on suicide terrorism includes the following studies, from which I have drawn. Robert Pape, ‘‘The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism,’’ American Political Science Review 97:3 (August 2003): 1–19. ‘‘La question des attentats suicides: Tactique ou theologie?’’ Religioscope (14 May 2002) at http://www.religioscope.com/info/articles/009_attacks.htm . See also Michael Taarnby, ‘‘Profiling Islamic Suicide Terrorists,’’ Research Report for the Danish Ministry of Justice (27 November 2003).
72. For this discussion of terrorists and WMD, I have relied extensively on the following sources. Roberta Wohlstetter, ‘‘Terror on a Grand Scale,’’ Survival 18:3 (1976): 98–104. Gavin Cameron, ‘‘ The Likelihood of Nuclear Terrorism ,’’ Journal of Conflict Studies 18:2 (Fall 1998): 5–28. Stanley Jacobs, ‘‘The Nuclear Threat as a Terrorist Option,’’ Terrorism and Political Violence 10:4 (Winter 1998): 149–163.
‘‘WMD Terrorism: An Exchange,’’ Survival 40 (Winter 1998–1999): 168–183. Richard Falkenrath, ‘‘Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Terrorism.’’ In Studies in Contemporary History and Security Policy 3 (Berne: Peter Lang, 1999) (chapter accessed online at http://www.fsk.ethz.ch/publ/studies/volume_3/Falkenrath.html. Charles Ferguson and William Potter, The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism, Monterey Institute—Center for Nonproliferation Studies. Bill Keller, ‘‘Nuclear Nightmares,’’ New York Times Magazine 26 (May 2002). Morten Bremer Maerli, ‘‘Relearning the ABCs: Terrorists and Weapons of Mass Destruction,’’ Nonproliferation Review (Summer 2000): 108–119. Morten Bremer Maerli, Nuclear Terrorism: Threats, Challenges and Responses. Norwegian Atlantic Committee, 2002.
73. I touch on this speculative issue in ‘‘Al-Qaeda’s Operational Art and Tactics’’ (forthcoming, 2005).
74. Al Quds al-Arabi (1 June 1998): 2.
75. Time (23 December 1998) (accessed online).
76. See Daily Telegraph (London) (24 December 2001): 1. See also Washington Times (4
March 2002): 1.
77. For details, see Stefan Leader, ‘‘Osama bin Laden and the Terrorist Search for WMD,’’ Jane’s Intelligence Review (June 1999): 34–37. See also Kimberley McCloud and Matthew Osborne, ‘‘WMD Terrorism and Usama Bin Laden,’’ Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Monterey Institute of International Studies (October 2000) at http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/reports/binladen.htm . See also Paul Mann,
‘‘Terrorist Mass Murder: New Weapon of Choice,’’ Aviation Week and Space Technology 17 (September 2001): 15.

3. The Role of Islam as a Motivating Factor in Osama Bin Laden's Appeal in the Muslim World - David Cook

1. These include interviews with Nida ul-Islam (October–November 1996), with Robert Fisk (June 1996), with Peter Arnett (late March 1997), with John Miller (28 May 1998), with Salih Najm and Jamal Ismail (June 1999), with Ummat (16 October 2001), with Taysir Alwani of Al-Jazeera (21 October 2001), and with Hamid Mir (7 November 2001).
2. This was before the formation of HAMAS (founded in August 1988); during the 1970s and early 1980s the radical Palestinian Muslims of the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Hashemite kingdom of the Jordan were of a comparatively quietistic bent.
3. His complete writings can be found at www.cybcity.com/azzamjihad; selections are translated into English at www.azzam.com.(Links no longer current)
4. See Abu Umamah (trans.), What the Kuffar Say about Usama b. Ladin (Khurasan Press, 1998), p. 23; Jason Burke, al-Qaeda (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003), p. 124.
5. Bin Baz answered Bin Ladin, and his rather dismissive return epistle has been translated into English ‘‘The Advice of Shaykul-Islaam Ibn Baz (d. 1420H) to Usaamah Ibn Laadin al-Khaarijee’’ (at www.troid.org , trans. Maaz Qureshi). Bin Ladin’s response was a personal attack upon Bin Baz published in his interview with Nida’ul-Islam (October–November 1996).
6. Although Bin Ladin claims to have participated in operations against the American army in Somalia, there is no evidence that he did anything other than inspire the Somalians from afar.
7. In accordance with the tradition ‘‘expel the polytheists from the Arabian Peninsula’’; see al-Bukhari, Sahih (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1991), Vol. 4, p. 78 (Nos. 3167–3188); also Malik bin Anas, al-Muwatta (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, n.d.), p. 597 (Nos. 1650–1652).
8. ‘‘Interview with Taysir al-‘Alwani,’’ original at alneda.com, trans. jehad.net (Part 2), p. 2.
9. Taken from Sulayman al-‘Ulwan (the well-known Saudi supporter of al-Qaida), al-Tibyan fi sharh nawaqid al-Islam (‘Amman: Dar al-Barayiq, 1999).
10. For example, ‘‘Open Letter to King Fahd’’ (1995), p. 7; ‘‘Proclamation’’ (1996) pp. 10, 13; ‘‘Interview with al-‘Alwani,’’ Part 2, pp. 3, 5.
11. ‘‘Open Letter to King Fahd,’’ p. 13, see also p. 7.
12. ‘‘Videotape of Usaama b. Ladin,’’ p. 3 (CNN edition, 11 December 2001).
13. Sources cited in al-Silafi, al-Fawa’id al-hisan fi hadith Thawban (Casablanca: Dar Ibn ‘Affan, 2001), pp. 7–14.
14. Etan Kohlberg, ‘‘Bara’a in Shi’i Doctrine,’’ Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 7 (1986), pp. 139–175.
15. For development in Wahhabi Islam, see Elizabeth Sirriyeh, ‘‘Wahhabis, Unbelievers, and the Problems of Exclusivity,’’ British Society for Middle Eastern Studies 15–16 (1988–1989), pp. 123–132.
16. See Muhammad al-Qahtani, Al-Wala’ wa’l-Bara’ According to the ‘Aqeedah of the Salaf (London: al-Firdous, 1999); Salih b. Fouzan al-Fouzan, al-Walaa’ wal-Baraa’ (trans. Abu Abdur Rahman Bansfield, Ipswich: Jami’at Ihya Minhaj al-Sunna, 1997); Hamud b. ‘Uqla al-Shu’aybi, al-Wala’ wa-l-bara’ (available at aloqla.com); and Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Wala’ wa-l-bara’ (available at e-prism.com).
17. ‘‘Open Letter,’’ p. 7.
18. In his ‘‘Open Letter to King Fahd’’ he also cites Muhammad b. Ibrahim Al Shaykh (former grand mufti of Saudi Arabia), Ahmad Muhammad Shakir (d. 1959), and the Egyptian Sufi al-Shanqiti (from the end of the nineteenth century).
19. He also mentions Salman al-‘Awda and Safar al-Hawali (both Saudis), but not as authorities.
20. Dawn (Internet version), p. 2 (10 November 2001).
21. ‘‘Final Address of the Noble Shaykh Usama b. Ladin,’’ pp. 4–5 (2001, available at alneda.com).
22. Below is a summary of the principal critiques contained in Sulayman b. ‘Abd al- Wahhab, al-Sawa’iq al-ilahiyya fi al-radd ‘ala al-Wahhabiyya (Damascus: Dar Ghar Harra, 2000); Ahmad b. Zayni Dahlan, Fitnat al-Wahhabiyya (Istanbul: Hakikat Kitabevi, 1991); and for contemporary critiques, Nasir al-Din al-Albani, Fatawa al- Shaykh al-Albani (Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1995), pp. 13–18, 117–125, reprinted in Fitnat al-takfir (Casablanca, n.d.), and trans. Malik al-Akhdar, In Defense of Islam in Light of the Events of September 11 (Toronto: TROID, 2002), pp. 115–131. See also al- Hasan b. Ahmad al-Damadi, Hukm takfir al-mu’ayyin (Riyad: al-Dibaji, 2001); and Hamid Algar, Wahhabism: A Critical Essay (Oneonta, NY: Islamic Publications, 2002).
23. Al-Bukhari, Sahih, Vol. 3, p. 264 (No. 2786); note the citation of a variant in ‘‘A Message from the Mujahid Usama b. Ladin to Ibn Baz,’’ p. 1 (1994).

4. Understanding Islamist Terrorist Networks - Marc Sageman

1. Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004).
2. Sayyid Qutb. (Undated.) Milestones. (Cedar Rapids, Iowa: Mother Mosque Foundation).
3. Muhammad ‘Abdel al-Salam Faraj, ‘‘Al-Faridah al Ghaibah.’’ In Johannes Jansen, The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat’s Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 159–234.
4. Osama bin Laden, ‘‘Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places,’’ Al-Quds al-Arabi (London, 23 August 1996).
5. Osama bin Laden et al., ‘‘Jihad against Jews and Crusaders’’ (23 February 1998).
6. Andrew Silke, ‘‘Cheshire-Cat Logic: The Recurring Theme of Terrorist Abnormality in Psychological Research,’’ Psychology, Crime, and Law 4 (1998): 51–69. Andrew Silk (ed.). Terrorists, Victims, and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Its Consequences (Chichester, England: Wiley, 2003). Also see article by Horgan in this text.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Bin Laden, Osama, ‘‘Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places,’’ Al-Quds al-Arabi (London, 23 August 1996).
See www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html .
Bin Laden, Osama, et al., ‘‘Jihad against Jews and Crusaders’’ (23 February 1998).
See www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.html (link no longer current).
Faraj, Muhammad ‘Abdel al-Salam, ‘‘Al-Faridah al Ghaibah.’’ In Johannes Jansen, The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat’s Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 159–234.
Qutb, Sayyid. n.d. Milestones. (Cedar Rapids, Iowa: Mother Mosque Foundation).
Sageman, Marc, Understanding Terror Networks . (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004).
Silke, Andrew, ‘‘Cheshire-Cat Logic: The Recurring Theme of Terrorist Abnormality in Psychological Research,’’ Psychology, Crime, and Law 4 (1998): 51–69.
——— (ed.). Terrorists, Victims, and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Its Consequences (Chichester, England: Wiley, 2003).

5. Al Qaeda Terrorist Selection and Recruitment - Sara Daly and Scott Gerwehr

1. For the purposes of this chapter recruits are considered to be individuals who have gone beyond exposure to terrorist messages and have been both indoctrinated and incorporated into the organization, whereas potential recruits—the primary focus of this chapter—are either those who are assessed by terrorist organizations as ripe for recruitment or those who self-select for terrorism on the basis of various personal and environmental factors.
2. Measurements of attitudes, opinions, emotions, perceptions, interests, etc.
3. Measurements of education, race, gender, occupation, etc.
4. In this chapter, we use the phrase terrorist groups to refer to violent groups or institutions such as al-Qaida that are totalist: that is, they seek to completely transform and dominate the lives of members. Our examination of the literature focused on the most destructive and demanding totalist groups (e.g., Aum Shinrikyo, the People’s Church, and Chinese ‘‘thought reform’’ of American POWs during the Korean War) for illustrative patterns. Al-Qaida is at the high end of the spectrum of totalism.
5. We will use the term node to refer to the context of recruitment. This may be a prison, a school campus, a medical clinic, a religious center, the living room of the recruiter’s home, or any other milieu used as a stage by the recruiting organization.
6. These are shorthand models to characterize the recruitment process. For ease of reference we have given them descriptive names, but these are not meant to be rigid or comprehensive categorizations.

7. Culling or weeding-out usually enhances the reputation of the group and its members by giving them elite status.
8. Individuals tend to model themselves on or seek guidance from those like them, not alien outsiders.
9. Surrounding potential recruits with peers who are already established recruits.
10. E. Goffman, Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963).
11. Good studies include: P. Zimbardo and C. Hartley, ‘‘Cults Go to High School: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of the Initial Stage in the Recruitment Process,’’ Cultic Studies Journal 2:1 (1985): 91–147. J. Lofland and R. Stark,‘‘Becoming a World Saver,’’ American Sociological Review 30 (1965): 862–875.
I. Yalom and M. Lieberman, ‘‘A Study of Encounter Group Casualties.’’ In Sager, Singer, and Kaplan (eds.), Progress in Group and Family Therapy (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1972), pp. 223–254. S. Moscovici, ‘‘Toward a Theory of Conversion Behavior,’’ Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 13 (1980): 209–239.
12. For example: opinions, attitudes, emotions, preconceptions, motivation, self-- efficacy, stereotypes.
13. For example: sickness, fear, disorientation, depression, hunger.
14. S. Ash, ‘‘Cult-Induced Psychopathology, Part One: Clinical Picture,’’ Cultic Studies Journal 2:1 (1985): 31–90. A. Bloomgarden and M. Langone, ‘‘Preventive Education on Cultism for High-School Students: A Comparison of Different Programs’ Effects on Potential Vulnerability to Cults,’’ Cultic Studies Journal 1:2 (1984): 167–177.
15. S. Ash, 1985; M. Zerin. 1982. ‘‘The Pied Piper Phenomenon: Family Systems and Vulnerability to Cults,’’ unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Fielding Institute, Santa Barbara, Calif.
16. Self-chosen and strongly held as part of identity.
17. Keme Nzerem, ‘‘At School with the Shoe Bomber,’’ Guardian Unlimited
(February 28, 2002). Available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,659184,00.html .
18. BBC News, ‘‘Who Is Richard Reid?’’ (December 28, 2001), Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1731568.stm.
19. We are implying not that every recruit to al-Qaida is brainwashed or coerced, but rather that many techniques used in classic, predatory thought reform are used by al-Qaida. Moreover, most of the recruiting techniques used by predatory
totalist groups (e.g., cults) are shared by al-Qaida.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Ash, S., ‘‘Cult-Induced Psychopathology, Part One: Clinical Picture,’’ Cultic Studies Journal 2:1 (1985): 31–90.
Ash, S., 1985; M. Zerin, 1982, ‘‘The Pied Piper Phenomenon: Family Systems and Vulnerability to Cults,’’ unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Fielding Institute, Santa Barbara, Calif.
Bloomgarden A. and M. Langone, ‘‘Preventive Education on Cultism for High- School Students: A Comparison of Different Programs’ Effects on Potential Vulnerability to Cults,’’ Cultic Studies Journal 1:2 (1984): 167–177.
Goffman, E., Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963).
Lofland, J. and R. Stark, ‘‘Becoming a World Saver,’’ American Sociological Review 30 (1965): 862–875.
Moscovici, S., ‘‘Toward a Theory of Conversion Behavior,’’ Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 13 (1980): 209–239.
Nzerem, Keme, ‘‘At School with the Shoe Bomber,’’ Guardian Unlimited (28
February 2002). Available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,659184,00.html .
‘‘Who Is Richard Reid?’’ BBC News (28 December 2001). Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1731568.stm .
Yalom, I. and M. Lieberman, ‘‘A Study of Encounter Group Casualties.’’ In Sager, Singer, and Kaplan (eds.), Progress in Group and Family Therapy (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1975), pp. 223–254.
Zimbardo, P. and C. Hartley, ‘‘Cults Go to High School: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of the Initial Stage in the Recruitment Process,’’ Cultic Studies Journal 2:1 (1985): 91–147.

6. "The War of the Ether": Al-Qaeda's Psychological Warfare Campaign - Michael Knapp

1. FBIS , ‘‘Commentator Analyzes Recent Bin Ladin Tapes, Sees U.S. as Losing ‘Information War’ Against al-Qa’ida,’’Al-Ansar in Arabic (20 November 2002): 9–15, GMP20021126000154. Internet. (Note on format and security: All FBIS translations used are unclassified but were accessed through a U.S. government information system; therefore, Web site addresses are normally not included. FBIS Document Identification Number is provided at the end of each such reference. When jihadist Web site addresses are provided, readers are cautioned to avoid accessing these sites directly.)
2. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction (CJCSI) 3210.01, quoted in Department of the Army Field Manual 100–6, Information Operations (Warning: PDF link) (27 August 1996), p. 2–2. (Note: Hereafter this source is referred to as FM 100–6.)
3. George J. Stein, ‘‘Information Warfare,’’ Airpower Journal (Spring 1995): 2. Accessed at www.airpower.au.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/stein.html on 28 May 2003.
4. U.S. Department of Defense Joint Publication 3–53, quoted in FM 100–6, pp. 3–4.
5. Yael Shahar, ‘‘Information Warfare: The Perfect Terrorist Weapon,’’ p. 4. International Policy Institute for Counterterrorism (ICT) Web site, www.ict.org.il Accessed from (30 May 2003).
6. Timothy L. Thomas, ‘‘Al Qaeda and the Internet: The Danger of ‘Cyberplanning,’’’ Parameters (Spring 2003): 112–123.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Nicholas Berry, ‘‘Effective Counter-Terrorism Deals with Motives,’’ Center for Defense Information (CDI) Terrorism Project (2 November 2001), pp. 1–2. Accessed 28 June 2002.
10. Ibid., pp. 2–4.
11. FBIS, ‘‘Editorial Discusses Name ‘al-Ansar,’’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (15 January 2002), p. 3, GMP20020220000169. Internet.
12. Paul Eedle, ‘‘Terrorism.com,’’ Guardian (London) (17 July 2002). Available through FBIS as ‘‘UK Daily Says Website ‘Central’ to Al-Qa’ida Strategy to Continue War against U.S.’’ (17 July 2002), EUP20020717000203.
13. ‘‘New Al-Qa’ida Online Magazine Features Interview with a ‘Most Wanted’ Saudi Islamist, Calls for Killing of Americans and Non-Muslims,’’ Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) Special Dispatch No. 591 (17 October 2003). Accessed at www.memri.org 10 November 2003.
14. See Reuven Paz, ‘‘Dark Side: Sawt al-Jihad,’’ published by PRISM Web site
(26 October 2003), and available from www.ocnus.net Web site; accessed 11 December 2003. See also Jonathan R. Galt, ‘‘Al-Qaeda Publishes Third Issue of Magazine,’’ SITE Institute Web site (7 November 2003); accessed at http://216.239.37.104, (11 December 2003).
15. ‘‘Al-Battar Training Camp: The First Issue of Al-Qa’ida’s Online Military Magazine,’’ MEMRI Special Dispatch No. 637 (6 January 2004), accessed from www.memri.org (6 January 2004).
16. Ibid.
17. ‘‘‘Al-Qaeda’ Training Manual Deconstructed,’’ Stratfor (23 January 2004). Accessed from www.stratfor.com .
18. FBIS, ‘‘Writer Examines Bin Ladin’s Political ‘Vision,’ Support for Palestinian Cause,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (15 January 2002), pp. 16–20,
GMP20020220000194. Internet.
19. FBIS, ‘‘‘Text’ of Al-Qa’ida Statement on Baghdad UN Headquarters Bombing,’’ London Qods Press in Arabic (25 August 2003), GMP20030825000179. Internet.
20. FBIS, ‘‘Writer Analyzes Political Thinking in ‘Imam’ Bin Ladin’s Latest Speech,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (28 January 2002), pp. 22–29, GMP20020223000091. Internet.
21. FBIS, ‘‘Commentator Sees U.S, as Failing in Its War on Terrorism and in Neutralizing Islamic and Jihadist Movements,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (22 September 2002), pp. 18–24, GMP20021001000099. Internet.
22. FBIS, ‘‘Reasons behind Fall of Baghdad Analyzed,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (17 April 2003), GMP20030422000163. Internet.
23. FBIS, ‘‘Islamic Research Center Publishes Book on 12 May Riyadh Operation,’’ www.cybcity.com in Arabic (1 August 2003), pp. 3–5, GMP20031004000119. Internet.
24. See FBIS, ‘‘Letter by al-Qa’ida Spokesman Abu-Ghayth Appealing for Release of Prisoners,’’ www.almuslimun.com in Arabic (2 September 2002), GMP20020902000041; Internet. See also Abu Ayman al-Hilali, ‘‘Guantanamo Bay: A Mirror of Our Ummah’s Reality,’’ accessed (in English) at www.jihadunspun.net (20 September 2002).
25. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Qa’ida’s Women Organization ‘Commander’ on Women’s Role in ‘Jihad,’’’ London Al-Sharq al-Awsat in Arabic (12 March 2003), p. 3, GMP20030312000069.
26. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Qa’ida Group Claims Responsibility for U.S., Canada Electricity Outage,’’ London Al-Quds al-Arabi in Arabic (18 August 2003), p. 4, GMP20030818000073.
27. FBIS, ‘‘Pro-Al-Qa’ida Writer Notes Mujahidin’s Tactics against U.S. Forces in Afghanistan,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (15 January 2002), pp. 11–15, GMP20020220000183. Internet.
28. FBIS, ‘‘Writer Says New Type of Wars Suits Mujahidin’s Fight against Western War Machine,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (28 January 2002), pp. 15–21, GMP20020223000086. Internet.
29. See the following two English translations of the Alneda document. ‘‘Al-Qaida on the Fall of Baghdad: Guerilla Warfare ‘Is the Most Powerful Weapon Muslims Have, and It Is the Best Method to Continue the Conflict with the Crusader Enemy,’’ MEMRI Special Dispatch No. 493 (11 April 2003), accessed at www.memri.org (27 April 2003). ‘‘Al-Qaida on the Fall of Baghdad,’’ trans. Jihadunspun; accessed from www.jihadunspun.net (12 April 2003).
30. FBIS, ‘‘Islamic Research Center Publishes Book on 12 May Riyadh Operation,’’ in Arabic (1 August 2003), p. 14, GMP20031004000119. Internet.
31. FBIS, ‘‘Strategies, Targets for Jihad against U.S. Discussed,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (13 February 2002), pp. 15–21, GMP20020620000172. Internet.
32. FBIS, ‘‘Pro-Al-Qa’ida Writer Views Similarities between Munich, New YorkOperations, ’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (27 February 2002), pp. 9–14, GMP20020307000169. Intenet.
33. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Ansar Writer Views Reasons for U.S. Intelligence ‘Failure’ against Mujahidin,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (26 June 2002), pp. 10–14, GMP20020702000138. Internet.
34. FBIS, ‘‘Battle of Janin Seen as Palestinian Victory, Turning Point in Palestinian- Israeli Conflict,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (14 April 2002), pp. 9–14, GMP20020422000135. Internet.
35. FBIS, ‘‘Commentator Sees al-Aqsa Intifada as Israel’s Vietnam, Calls for Support of Mujahidin,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (8 October 2002), pp. 9–15, GMP20021020000227. Internet.
36. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Ansar Writer Reviews U.S. Military ‘Barbarity,’ ‘War Crimes’ against Civilians,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (24 July 2002), pp. 9–14, GMP20020805000114. Internet.
37. See the following two English translations of this article. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Qa’ida’s Abu-Ghayth Notes Right ‘to Use Chemical, Germ Weapons’ against U.S.,’’ Alneda in Arabic (8 June 2002), GMP20020608000060; Internet. ‘‘‘Why We Fight America’: Al-Qa’ida Spokesman Explains 11 September and Declares Intentions to Kill 4 Million Americans with Weapons of Mass Destruction,’’ MEMRI Special Dispatch No. 388 (12 June 2002), accessed at www.memri.org (4 November 2002).
38. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Qa’ida ‘Ideologue’ Reveals Years-Long Controversy on Using WMD against U.S.,’’ London Al-Sharq al-Awsat in Arabic (12 September 2002), p. 7, GMP20020912000159.
39. FBIS, ‘‘Use of Weapons of Mass Destruction Defended on Basis of Islamic Law,’’ Internet text in Arabic (1 May 2003) (18 trans. pp.), GMP20030602000454.
40. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Ansar Article Views Overlooked Role of Snipers in Wars of ‘Mujahidin,’’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (22 October 2002), pp. 9–14,
GMP20021024000088. Internet.
41. FBIS, ‘‘Jihadist Website Posts Sniper Training Manual,’’ www.arabforum.net in Arabic (28 January 2003) (25 trans. pp.), GMP20030221000172. Internet.
42. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Ansar Writer Views Reasons for U.S. Intelligence ‘Failure’ against Mujahidin,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (26 June 2002), pp. 10–14,
GMP20020702000138. Internet.
43. FBIS, ‘‘Commentator Faults U.S. Identification of al-Qa’ida’s ‘Center of Gravity’; Sees Economy as U.S.’s Vulnerable ‘Center of Gravity,’’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (19 December 2002), pp. 10–16, GMP20030122000038. Internet.
44. FBIS, ‘‘Report Details Rise of ‘Foreign Fighters’ to Al-Qa’ida Command,’’ London Al-Majallah in Arabic (3–9 August 2003), pp. 10–14, GMP20030805000138.
45. FBIS, ‘‘DEBKAfile Views Al-Qa’ida Manual for Kidnapping Americans, Plans to Attack in U.S.,’’ Jerusalem DEBKAfile in English (25 November 2003), GMP20031126000083. Internet.
46. See the following three FBIS translations of al-Ansari articles. ‘‘Koranic Basis for Perpetual Hostility, Fighting Between Muslims and Unbelievers Supported,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (15 January 2002), pp. 4–9, GMP20020220000172; Internet. ‘‘Fighting in Jihad against Unbelievers Seen as Duty of Every Individual Muslim,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (27 February 2002), pp. 4–8, GMP20020307000167; Internet. ‘‘Guidelines for Armed Conflict between the ‘Muslim Nation’ and Its ‘Enemies’ Explored,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (14 May 2002), pp. 4–8,
GMP20020522000129; Internet.
47. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Qa’ida Issues Statement on ‘Legitimacy’ of New York, Washington Attacks,’’ Alneda in Arabic (24 April 2002), GMP20020424000171. Internet.
48. ‘‘Al-Qa’ida Affiliated Magazine: On the Importance of Jihad,’’ MEMRI Special Dispatch No. 418 (4 September 2002). Accessed from www.memri.org (4 September 2002).
49. FBIS, ‘‘Al-Zawahiri Article Says ‘Islamic Awakening’ Frightening Enemies of Islam,’’ London Al-Hayah in Arabic (18 February 2003), pp. 1, 6, GMP20030218000075.
50. FBIS, ‘‘Future of Iraq, Arabian Peninsula after the Fall of Baghdad,’’ in Arabic (1 August 2003) (50 trans. pp.), GMP20030929000003.
51. For the intrafaith threat from the Shia, see the following two sources. FBIS, ‘‘Future of Iraq, Arabian Peninsula . . . ’’ ‘‘Al-Qa’ida Affiliated Web site: The Shi’a Threat to Sunni Islamists Is No Less Than the ‘Judeo-Christian’ Threat,’’ MEMRI Special Dispatch No. 498 (2 May 2003); accessed from www.memri.org (12 May 2003).
52. FBIS, ‘‘Future of Iraq, Arabian Peninsula . . . ’’
53. Paul Eedle, ‘‘Al-Qaeda Takes Fight for ‘Hearts and Minds’ to the Web,’’ Jane’s Intelligence Review (1 August 2002). (Online version, posted 10 July 2002.)
54. FBIS, ‘‘Islamic Research Center Publishes Book on 12 May Riyadh Operation,’’ in Arabic (1 August 2003), p. 15, GMP20031004000119. Internet.
55. FBIS, ‘‘Commentator Analyzes Recent Bin Ladin Tapes, Sees U.S, as Losing ‘Information War’ against al-Qa’ida,’’ Al-Ansar in Arabic (20 November 2002), pp. 9–15, GMP20021126000154. Internet.
56. Ibid.

57. FBIS, ‘‘Center for Islamic Studies and Research on U.S.-Alneda Internet War,’’ Alneda in Arabic (3 October 2002), GMP20021003000145. Internet.
58. FBIS, ‘‘Expert Analyzes Article by Bin Ladin ‘Interpreter’ for Keys to Al-Qa’ida
Plans,’’ Herzliyya GLORIA e-mail text in English (6 March 2003), GMP20030307000119.
59. Both of Bin Laden’s mass media messages to the American public have been translated by FBIS. ‘‘Islamist Site Publishes Bin Ladin’s ‘Letter to the American People,’’’ Waaqiah in English (26 October 2002), GMP20021026000053; Internet. ‘‘Al-Jazirah Carries Bin Ladin’s Audio Messages to Iraqis, Americans,’’ Doha Al-Jazirah Satellite Channel Television in Arabic (18 October 2003),GMP20031018000194.