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7. Introduction- Noel Koch
8. The New Age of Terrorism - Brian Jenkins
9. Chaos, Terrorism, and Beyond - Xavier Raufer

1. On Karachi, see Anne-Line Didier and Jean-Luc Marret, Etats e´choue´s, me´gapoles anarchiques, PUF, coll. De´fense et De´fis Nouveaux, 2001. For Brazil’s ‘‘criminal strongholds,’’ see the Web site of the Department for the Study of the Contemporary Criminal Menace, www.drmcc.org , ‘‘Note d’Alerte’’ No. 2, headed Cocai¨ne sur l’Europe: L’inondation approche (Cocaine in Europe: The Flood Is
Coming).
2. ‘‘Israe¨l: Existerait-il deux e´tats juifs?’’ (‘‘Israel: Are There in Fact Two Jewish States?’’) Ha’aretz-Courrier International (13 May 2004).

10. Terrorist Psychology - John Horgan

1. J. M. Post, ‘‘Group and Organisational Dynamics of Political Terrorism: Implications for Counterterrorist Policy,’’ in P. Wilkinson and A. M. Stewart (eds.), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1987), pp. 307–317.
2. For example, see J. Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism (London: Routledge, 2005). Some of the arguments in the present article are developed more fully in this book.
3. See W. Reich (ed.), Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
4. Ibid.
5. See M. Taylor, The Terrorist (London: Brassey’s, 1988).
6. See especially the various chapters on this topic in A. Silke (ed.), Terrorists, Victims, and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Its Consequences (London: Wiley, 2003).
7. Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism.
8. See also J. Horgan, ‘‘The Social and Psychological Characteristics of Terrorism and Terrorists,’’ in T. Bjorgo (ed.), Root Causes of Terrorism (London: Routledge, in press).
9. For information, please contact the author.
10. Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism, Chapter 7.
11. Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism, discusses this in detail.

11. WMD and Lessons from the Anthrax Attacks - Dr. Leonard Cole

1. Worldwide Threat – Converging Dangers in a Post 9/11 World, testimony of Director of Central Intelligence George J. Tenet, before the Senate Armed Services Committee, 19 March 2002.
2. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, Overview of the Enemy, Staff Statement No. 15, presented at public hearing, May 18, 2004, http://www.9–11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_15.pdf . Also see Joshua Sinai, ‘‘How to Forecast and Preempt al-Qaeda’s Catastrophic Terrorist Warfare,’’ Journal of Homeland Security (August 2003), http://www.homelanddefense.org/journal/Articles/sinaiforecast.htm .
3. Remarks of Deputy Attorney General James Comey Regarding Jose Padilla, June 1, 2004, http://www.usdoj.gov/dag/speech/2004/dag6104.htm .
4. World Tribune.com, ‘‘HAMAS Threatens to Use Chemical Weapons Against Israel,’’ (June 17, 2002), http://216.26.163.62/2002/me_palestinians_06_17.html .
5. For discussion of possible reasons that the Germans did not try to develop an atomic bomb see Stanley Goldberg and Thomas Powers, ‘‘Declassified Files Reopen ‘Nazi Bomb’ Debate,’’ The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist (September
1992).
6. Federation of American Scientists, accessed June 11, 2004 at http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/wmd_state.htm .
7. Raymond Bonner and Craig S. Smith, ‘‘Pakistani Said to Have Given Libya Uranium,’’ The New York Times (February 21, 2004): A–1.
8. Center for Defense Information, accessed April 6, 2004 at www.cdi.org/ terrorism/nuclear-pr.cfm .
9. Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (signed at Geneva 17 June 1925), United Nations Department for Disarmament Affairs, Status of Multilateral Arms Regulation and Disarmament Agreements, (2nd ed.) (New York: United Nations, 1983).
10. Leonard A. Cole, The Eleventh Plague: The Politics of Biological and Chemical Weapons (New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998), pp. 87–91.
11. U.S. Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Minority Staff Statement, ‘‘A Case Study on the Aum Shinrikyo,’’ Washington, D.C., October 31, 1995, p. 52.
12. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction. Signed in 1993, entered into force in 1997. Accessed June 28, 2004 at www.opcw.org/html/db/cwc/eng/ cwc_frameset.html .
13. Monterey Institute of International Studies, ‘‘Chemical and Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present,’’ accessed June 25, 2004 at http://cns.miis.edu/research/cbw/possess.htm .
14. Wendy Orent, Plague: The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World’s Most Dangerous Disease (New York: Free Press, 2004), p. 213.
15. Jonathan B. Tucker and Jason Pate, ‘‘The Minnesota Patriots Council (1991),’’ in Jonathan B. Tucker, ed., Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 159–83.
16. W. Seth Carus, ‘‘The Rajneeshees (1984),’’ in Tucker, ibid., pp. 115–37.
17. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction. Signed in 1972, entered into force in 1975. Accessed June 28, 2004 at www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4718.htm .
18. ‘‘Chemical and Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present,’’ op cit.
19. Ken Alibek, Biohazard: The Chilling Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World (New York: Random House, 1999), pp. 258–62.
20. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, August 1993); U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies Underlying Weapons of Mass Destruction (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, December 1993); Richard A. Falkenrath, Robert D. Newman, and Bradley A. Thayer, America’s Achilles’ Heel: Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Terrorism and Covert Attack (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2001).
21. A mock bioterrorism exercise in 2002, titled ‘‘Dark Winter,’’ created a scenario in which a smallpox attack resulted in thousands of deaths, http://www.upmc-biosecurity.org/pages/events/dark_winter/DARK%20WINTER.pdf. The naturally occurring flu pandemic in 1918 killed an estimated 40 million people worldwide. See Gina Kolata, Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus That Caused It (New York: Touchstone Books, 2001).
22. This section is largely drawn from Leonard A. Cole, The Anthrax Letters: A Medical Detective Story (Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press/National Academies Press, 2003), http://www.anthraxletters.com .
23. Leonard A. Cole, Clouds of Secrecy: The Army’s Germ Warfare Tests Over Populated Areas (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1990).

24. ‘‘Postal Service Completes Test of New Anthrax Detection System,’’ Global Security Newswire (September 9, 2003), accessed October 10, 2003 at www.govexec.com/dailyfed/0903/090903gsn1.htm ).
25. Ari Schuler, ‘‘Billions for Biodefense: Federal Agency Biodefense Funding, FY2001-FY2005,’’ Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, 2:2 (2004): 87.

12. Fear in a Handful of Dust: Risks and Responses to Global Biological Terrorism - Terry O'Sullivan

1. Though the microorganism is b. anthracis, it has become a convention to refer to it and the disease it causes both as anthrax. See, e.g., Christian Davenport, ‘‘Fears About Smallpox Shots May Put Public at Risk,’’ Washington Post (12 September 2004), p. C1. See also Marc Kaufman, ‘‘U.S. Barred from Forcing Troops to Get Anthrax Shots,’’ Washington Post (28 October 2004): A1.
2. Deborah McKenzie, ‘‘U.S. Develops Lethal New Viruses,’’ New Scientist (29 October 2003).
3. Ariella M. Rosengard, Y. Liu, Z. Nie, and R. Jimenez, ‘‘Variola virus immune evasion design: Expression of a highly efficient inhibitor of human complement,’’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 99 (25 June 2002): 8808–13.
4. J. Cello, A. V. Paul, and E. Wimmer, ‘‘Chemical Synthesis of Poliovirus cDNA: Generation of Infectious Virus in the Absence of Natural Template,’’ Science 297 (2002): 1016–8.
5. See Laurie Garrett, Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health (New York: Hyperion, 2000).
6. Mark Wheelis, ‘‘BiologicalWarfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa,’’ Emerging Infectious Diseases 8:9 (September 2002).
7. See the following: Michael S. Bronze, M. M. Huycke, L. J. Machado, et al., ‘‘Viral Agents as Biological Weapons and Agents of Bioterrorism,’’ American Journal of Medical Science 323:6 (2002): 316–25. Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–1782 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001). E. W. Stearn and W. E. Stearn, The Effect of Smallpox on the Destiny of the Amerindian (Boston, Mass.: Bruce Humphries, 1945).
8. Ali S. Khan and David A. Ashford, ‘‘Ready or Not: Preparedness for Bioterrorism,’’ New England Journal of Medicine 345:4 (26 July 2001): 287.
9. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction. BWC was opened for signature on 10 April 1972 in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C.; it entered into force on 26 March 1975.
10. Judith Miller, Stephen Engelberg, and William Broad, Germs: Biological Weapons and America’s Secret War (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), pp. 166–7.
11. Ibid.
12. John Cramer, ‘‘Oregon Suffered Largest Bioterrorism Attack in U.S. History, 20 Years ago,’’ Bulletin (Bend, Oregon) (14 October 2001). Accessed 16 June 2003 at www.bendbulletin.com .
13. Miller, Engelberg, and Broad, Germs.
14. Paul Keim et al., ‘‘Molecular Investigation of the Aum Shinrikyo Anthrax Release in Kameido, Japan,’’ Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39:12 (December 2001): 4566–7.
15. Akihiko Misawa, ‘‘Aum Bio-Attacks Opened Pandora’s Box,’’ Daily Yomiuri (26 October 2001). Cited by Center for Studies of New Religions (CESNUR), www.cesnur.org .
16. Judith Miller and William J. Broad, ‘‘Exercise Finds U.S. Unable to Handle Germ War Threat,’’ New York Times (26 April 1998): A1, A10.
17. Ibid., p. A10. See also Miller, Engelberg and Broad, Germs, pp. 223–6.
18. GAO, Combating Terrorism: Spending on Governmentwide Programs Requires Better Management and Coordination (GAO/NSIAD-98-39) (December 1997), p. See also Richard Falkenrath, America’s Achilles Heel (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998).
19. See Elin Gursky et al., ‘‘Anthrax 2001: Observations on the Medical and Public Health Response,’’ Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 1:2 (2003).
20. Frederick Sidell, William C. Patrick III, T. R. Dashiell, et al., Jane’s Chem-Bio Handbook (2nd ed.) (Alexandria Va.: Jane’s Information Group, 2002), pp. 153–71.
21. Ibid., p. 158.
22. Thomas Inglesby et al., ‘‘Anthrax as a Bioweapon, 2002: Updated Recommendations for Management,’’ Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) 287:17 (May 2002): 4.
23. Sidell et al., Jane’s Chem-Bio Handbook, pp. 165–9.
24. Ibid., pp. 165–6, 172, 186.
25. Jonathan B. Tucker, ‘‘The Proliferation of Chemical and Biological Weapons Materials and Technologies to State and Sub-State Actors,’’ testimony before the Subcommittee on International Security, Proliferation, and Federal Services of the U.S. Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs, Washington, D.C., Office (7 November 2001).
26. Ceci Connolly and David Brown, ‘‘Survey Finds Major Misconceptions About Smallpox,’’ Washington Post (20 December 2002): A38.
27. Robert J. Blendon et al., ‘‘The Impact of Anthrax Attacks on the American Public,’’ Medscape General Medicine 4:2 (2002); accessed 5 December 2002 at www.medscape.com/viewarticle/430197 .
28. Miller, Engelberg, and Broad, Germs, pp. 15–33.
29. Bill Patrick, address at UCLA Berkle Center Conference, 2002.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Joe Pappalardo, ‘‘Scientists Seek Breakthroughs in Bio-Detection,’’ National Defense (July 2004).
33. ‘‘BMA Say Scientists Should Take Part in Bioterrorism Debate,’’ British Medical Journal (BMJ ) 329:30 (October 2004), www.bmj.com .

13. Hezbollah as an Adversary - Daniel Byman

1. For accounts of the collapse of Lebanon into civil war, see Dilip Hiro, Lebanon: Fire and Embers (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992); and Michael Hudson, ‘‘The Breakdown of Democracy in Lebanon,’’ Journal of International Affairs 38 (Winter 1985): 277–92. The steady politicization of the Shia is described in Augustus Richard Norton, Amal and the Shia (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987).
2. For an excellent account of the military campaign, see Kenneth Pollack, Arabs at War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press), pp. 524–51. See also Thomas Collelo, Lebanon: A Country Study (Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989), p. 204.
3. Fouad Ajami, The Vanished Imam (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 200; and Hala Jaber, Hezbollah: Born with a Vengeance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), p. 14.
4. Augustus Richard Norton, ‘‘Hizballah and the Israeli Withdrawal from Southern Lebanon,’’ Journal of Palestine Studies, 30:1 (Autumn 2000), electronic version; Shimon Shapira, ‘‘The Origins of Hizballah,’’ Jerusalem Quarterly, 46 (Spring 1988): 123.
5. Initially, these included the Islamic Amal movement (a splinter of the overall Amal organization founded by al-Sadr), the Association of Muslim Ulema in Lebanon, the Lebanese Da’wa, and the Association of Muslim Students, among others. Over time, the movement spread to Beirut, where it incorporated the many followers of Shaykh Fadlallah, a leading Lebanese religious scholar who at the time endorsed many of the ideas of the Iranian revolution. From there, the movement spread to the Amal stronghold of southern Lebanon, where it incorporated many local fighters who were battling the Israelis largely on their own. Magnus Ranstorp, Hizb’allah in Lebanon: The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), pp. 25–3. See Shapira, ‘‘The Origins of Hizballah,’’ p. 124; Martin Kramer, ‘‘The Moral Logic of Hizballah,’’ in W. Reich (ed.), Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 131–57; Carl Anthony Wege, ‘‘Hizbollah Organization,’’ Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 17 (1994): 154; Sami G. Hajjar, ‘‘Hizballah: Terrorism, National Liberation, or Menace?’’ (August 2002) (Carlisle, Pa.: Strategic Studies Institute), pp. 6–9 .
6. Jaber, Hezbollah, p. 113.

7. For a review of the impact of this hijacking on the United States, see George P. Schultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York: Scribner, 1993), pp. 655–64.
8. Iran sponsored Saudi Hizballah, which carried out the bombing, and also trained cell members. One suspect detained by the FBI and later deported to Saudi Arabia noted that IRGC recruited him and that an IRGC leader directed several operations in the kingdom. The suspects also worked with the Iranian embassy in Damascus for logistical support. For a review, see Elsa Walsh, ‘‘Louis
Freeh’s Last Case,’’ New Yorker (14 May 2001).
9. Human Rights Watch, Civilian Pawns: Laws of War Violations and the Use of Weapons on the Israel-Lebanon Border (New York: Brookings Institution Press, May 1996), p. 22.
10. Paul Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2001), p. 159.
11. See ‘‘Terrorist Group Profiles,’’ Naval Postgraduate School, from Patterns of Global Terrorism; and Yoram Schweitzer, ‘‘A Transnational Terrorist Organization’’ (1 September 2002, available at www.ict.org.il ).
12. Matthew Levitt, ‘‘The Hizballah Threat in Africa,’’ Policywatch 823 (2 January 2004).
13. ‘‘United States of America v. Mohamad Youssef Hammoud et al., United States District Court, Western District of North Carolina, Charlotte Division.
14. Hizballah has admitted that these organizations are not separate entities. Ranstorp, Hizb’allah in Lebanon, p. 53. See also A. Nizar Hamzeh, ‘‘Islamism in Lebanon: A Guide,’’ Middle East Review of International Affairs 1:3 (Spring 1997), electronic version. Other experts report that Hizballah had 5,000 fighters and 5,000 more reservists by the end of the 1980s. Wege, ‘‘Hizbollah Organization,’’p. 155.
15. International Crisis Group, ‘‘Hizballah,’’ p. 10; Schweitzer, ‘‘Hizballah: A Transnational Terrorist Organization’’; Kitfield, ‘‘The Iranian Connection,’’ p. 1469.
16. Amal Saad-Ghoreyeb, Hizbu’llah: Politics and Religion (Sterling, Va.: Pluto, 2002), pp. 23–36; Jaber, Hizballah, pp. 56–77; Judith Harik, ‘‘Between Islam and the System: Sources and Implications of Popular Support for Lebanon’s Hezbollah,’’ Journal of Conflict Resolution 40:1 (March 1996): 58.
17. Steven N. Simon and Jonathan Stevenson, ‘‘Declawing the ‘Party of God’: Toward Normalizing in Lebanon,’’ World Policy Journal (Summer 2001): 39; International Crisis Group, ‘‘Hezbollah,’’ p. 7.
18. As of this writing, Hizballah’s role in Iraq is one of the most important issues thatwill determine the future course of the movement. The movement appears to be helping organize Iraqi Shia and otherwise building a capacity for action in Iraq to serve Iran’s interests there because of the Hizballah leadership’s historic ties to Iraq and because of the movement’s continued anti-Americanism and its sense that the United States’ role in Iraq is imperialistic. Whether Hezbollah will be content to help Iraqi Shia organize politically or whether it will actively encourage them to use violence against U.S. forces and other Iraqis is unclear at this time. Such a move, however, could set the movement and Iran on a collision path with the United States.
19. Judith Palmer Harik, Hezbollah: The Changing Face of Terrorism (New York: Tauris, 2004), pp. 2–4.

14. Terrorist Financing - Steve Emerson

1. Occupied Land Fund, IRS Form 1023, filed 19 July 1989.
2. Holy Land Foundation (HLFRD), IRS Form 990, 1992.
3. Action Memorandum, HLFRD International Emergency Economic Powers Act. From Dale Watson, Assistant Director, FBI Counterterrorism Division, to Richard Newcomb, Director of the Office of Foreign Assets Control, Department of Treasury (5 November 2001).
4. Ibid.
5. State of Israel v. Mahmud ben Mahagna (a.k.a. Abu Samra) et al., District Court of Haifa, 23 July 2003.
6. Statement by Muhammad Anati to Israeli authorities, Petach Tikva, Israel, 17 December 1997.
7. Ibid.
8. ‘‘Shutting Down the Terrorist Financial Network,’’ U.S. Treasury Department, 4 December 2001, accessed 8 July 2004 at www.ustreas.gov/press/releases/ po841.htm .
9. U.S. v. Holy Land Foundation (N.D. Texas), indictment filed 27 July 2004.
10. Ibid.

11. Ibid.
12. Redacted Affidavit in Support of Application, in the Matter of Searches Involving 555 Grove Street, Herndon, Virginia, and Related Locations, in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia, No. 02-114-MG.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. SAAR Foundation, Inc., Virginia Secretary of State, Corporate Record.
17. Redacted Affidavit, op. cit., Attachment C.
18. Redacted Affidavit.
19. Ibid.; and Harry Jaffe, ‘‘Unmasking the Mysterious Mohamed Hadid,’’ Business Dateline (October 1998).
20. John Mintz and Douglas Farah, ‘‘In Search of Friends among the Foes,’’ Washington Post (11 September 2004).
21. Testimony of Richard Clarke before Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs (22 October 2003).
22. U.S. v. Holy Land Foundation, op. cit.
23. Statement of Ronald Noble, Interpol Secretary General, before House Committee on International Relations, ‘‘The Links between International Property Crime and Terrorist Financing’’ (16 July 2003), p. 3.
24. Laz Baguioro, ‘‘Terrorists ‘Selling Pirated Goods to Get Money,’’ Straits Times (21 November 2003).
25. Brooks Boliek, ‘‘Interpol IDs Piracy Link to Funding of Terrorism,’’ Reuters (10 June 2004).
26. Ibid.
27. John Solomon and Ted Bridis, ‘‘Feds Track Sales of Counterfeit Goods, Money to Terror Groups,’’ Associated Press (25 October 2002).
28. Ibid.
29. ‘‘Sheik Gets Life Sentence in Terror Trial,’’ CNN (17 January 1996).
30. Noble, statement, op. cit; Baguioro, op. cit.
31. Noble, statement.
32. ‘‘ ‘Terror’ Groups Cashing in on Fake Goods—Interpol,’’ Reuters (7 April 2004).
33. S. A. Miller, ‘‘Smoking Out Smugglers,’’ Washington Times (29 February 2004), www.washingtontimes.com/specialreport/20040229-124325-8213r.htm .
34. United States v. Hammoud (W.D. North Carolina), No. 00CR147, superseding bill of indictment filed 28 March 2001.
35. ‘‘Homegrown Terrorists: How a Hezbollah Cell Made Millions in Sleepy Charlotte, N.C.,’’ US News and World Report (10 March 2003).
36. Dan Herbeck, ‘‘Defendant Accused of Funding Al-Qaida,’’ Buffalo News (4 March 2004).
37. Miller, ‘‘Smoking Out Smugglers,’’ op. cit.
38. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Terrorist
Financing Staff Monograph, pp. 21–2.
39. Ibid., p. 29.
40. Ibid., pp. 27–8.
41. Ibid., p. 28.