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28. Introduction - Anthony Beverina
29. Integrating Risk Management with Security/ Anti-Terrorism Resource Allocation Decision-Making Gregory S. Parnell, Robin Dillon-Merrill, and Terry Bresnick

1. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2004. Terrorism, www.fema.gov/hazards/terrorism/ .
2. Craig W. Kirkwood, Strategic Decision Making: Multiobjective Decision Analysis with Spreadsheets (Belmont, Calif.: Duxbury, 1997).
3. Dennis S. Mileti and Paul W. O’Brien, ‘‘Warnings during Disaster: Normalizing Communicated Risk,’’ Societal Problems 39:1 (February 1992): 40–57.
4. Dennis S. Mileti, Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press, 1999).
5. Dennis E. Wenger, James D. Dykes, Thomas D. Sebok, and Joan L. Neff, ‘‘It’s a Matter of Myths: An Empirical Examination of Individual Insight into Disaster Response,’’ Mass Emergencies 1 (1975): 33–46.
6. FEMA. 2004. Hazards List, www.fema.gov/hazards/ .
7. FEMA. 2004. Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA) of Hazard Mitigation Projects Appendix 1 to the Riverine Flood—Full Data Module User’s Guide for Software Version 5.2.3, www.fema.gov/pdf/fima/hmgp/bcmanual.pdf .
8. Reactor Safety Study: Assessment of Accident Risk in U.S. Commercial Nuclear Plants. 1975. WASH-1400 (NUREG-75/014). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC).
9. PRA Procedures Guide. 1983. NUREG/CR-2300. Washington D.C.: USNRC. See also W. E. Vesely, Fault Tree Handbook (Washington D.C.: Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, 1981).

10. Mark Davison and William Vantine, ‘‘Understanding Risk Management: A Review of the Literature and Industry Practice,’’ European Space Agency Risk Management Workshop, ESTEC (30 March–2 April 1998): 253–6. See also Michael Frank, A Survey of Risk Assessment Methods from the Nuclear, Chemical, and Aerospace Industries for Applicability to the Privatized Vitrification of Hanford Tank
Wastes. Report to USNRC (August 1998).
11. Procedural and Submittal Guidance for the Individual Plant Examination of External Events (IPEEE) for Severe Accident Vulnerabilities. 1991. Final Report. Washington, D.C.: USNRC. See also A Technique for Human Error Analysis (Atheana). 1996. Washington, D.C.: Division of Systems Technology, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, USNRC. And see Ali Mosleh. 1993. Procedure for Analysis of Common- Cause Failures in Probabilistic Safety Analysis. Washington D.C.: Division of Safety Issue Resolution, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, USNRC.
12. M. E. Pate´-Cornell and Robin L. Dillon. ‘‘Probabilistic Risk Analysis for the NASA Space Shuttle: A Brief History and Current Work,’’ Reliability Engineering and System Safety 74:3 (2001): 345–52.
13. F. Groen, C. Smidts, A. Mosleh, and S. Swaminathan, ‘‘QRAS: Quantitative Risk Assessment System,’’ Proceedings of RAMS 2002, Annual Reliability and Maintainability Symposium (2002).
14. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Department of Defense, Joint Doctrine for Information Operations. Joint Publication (JP) 3-13 (Washington, D.C.: Pentagon, 1998).
15. Fred Cohen, ‘‘Information System Attacks: A Preliminary Classification Scheme,’’ Computer and Security 16:1 (1997): 29–46.
16. D. L. Buckshaw, G. S. Parnell, W. L. Unkenholz, D. L. Parks, J. M. Wallner, and O. S. Saydjari, ‘‘Mission Oriented Risk and Design Analysis of Critical Information Systems.’’ Technical Report 2004-03, Innovative Decisions, Inc. (August 2004).
17. Vicki Bier, ‘‘Should the Model for Security Be Game Theory Rather Than Reliability Theory?’’ Fourth International Conference on Mathematical Methods in Reliability: Methodology and Practice, Santa Fe, N.M. (21–25 June 2004).
18. Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) Report (Washington, D.C.: NASA, August 2003).
19. A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, ‘‘Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and biases,’’ Science 185:4157 (1974): 1124–31.
20. N. D. Weinstein, Taking Care: Understanding and Encouraging Self-Protective Behavior (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
21. M. E. Doherty, R. Chadwick, H. Garavan, D. Barr, and C. R. Mynatt, ‘‘On People’s Understanding of the Diagnostic Implications of Probabilistic Data,’’ Memory and Cognition 24 (1996): 644–54. See also P. C. Wason, ‘‘On the Failure to Eliminate Hypotheses in a Conceptual Task,’’ Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 12 (1960): 129–40. And see Wason, ‘‘Reasoning about a Rule,’’ Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 20 (1968): 273–281.
22. CAIB, 2003.
23. M. K. Lindell and R. W. Perry, Behavioral Foundations of Community Emergency Planning (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere, 1992).
24. Dennis M. Buede, The Engineering Design of Systems: Models and Methods (New York: Wiley, 2000).
25. Software Engineering Institute (SEI), Continuous Risk Management Guidebook (Pittsburgh, Pa.: Carnegie Mellon University, 1996).

26. Ibid.
27. National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC), ‘‘Risk Management: An Essential Guide to Protecting Critical Infrastructure,’’ Washington D.C. (November 2002).
28. SEI, 1996.
29. NPIC, 2002.
30. E. J. Henley and H. Kumamoto, Probabilistic Risk Assessment: Reliability Engineering, Design, and Analysis (New York: IEEE, 1992).
31. Buckshaw et al., 2004.
32. M. Modarres, What Every Engineer Should Know about Reliability and Risk Analysis (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993).
33. Buckshaw et al., 2004.
34. John B. Bowles, ‘‘The New SAE FMECA Standard,’’ Proceedings of the Annual Reliability and Maintainability Symposium (1998): 48–53.
35. Katsushige Onodera, ‘‘Effective Techniques of FMEA at Each Life-Cycle Stage,’’ Proceedings of the Annual Reliability and Maintainability Symposium (1997): 50–6.
36. Adapted from Henley and Kumamoto, 1992.
37. M. E. Pate´-Cornell, ‘‘Uncertainties in Risk Analysis: Six Levels of Treatment,’’ Reliability Engineering and System Safety 54 (1996): 95–111.
38. M. E. Pate´-Cornell, R. L. Dillon, and S. D. Guikema. ‘‘On the Limitations of Redundancies in the Improvement of System Reliability.’’ Risk Analysis 24:6 (December 2004): 1423–36.
39. Samuel Bodily, ‘‘Introduction: The Practice of Decision and Risk Analysis,’’ Interfaces 22:6 (November–December 1992): 1–4.
40. Ralph Keeney, ‘‘Decision Analysis: An Overview,’’ Operations Research 30:5 (September–October 1982): 803–38.
41. Ibid.
42. Buckshaw et al., 2004.
43. Kirkwood, 1997.
44. Ibid.
45. R. L. Keeney and H. Raiffa, Decision Making with Multiple Objectives: Preferences and Value Tradeoffs (New York: Wiley, 1976).
46. Kirkwood, 1997.
47. J. A. Engelbrecht, Jr., R. L. Bivins, P. M. Condray, M. D. Fecteau, J. P. Geiss II, and
K. C. Smith, ‘‘Alternate Futures for 2025: Security Planning to Avoid Surprise’’ (Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala.: Air University Press, April 1996).
48. J. A. Jackson, G. S. Parnell, B. L. Jones, L. J. Lehmkuhl, H. Conley, and J. Andrew, ‘‘Air Force 2025 Operational Analysis,’’ Military Operations Research 3:4 (1997): 5–21.
49. M. Dresher, Games of Strategy (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1961). See also M. E. Pate´-Cornell and S. D. Guikema, ‘‘Probabilistic Modeling of Terrorist Threats: A Systems Analysis Approach to Setting Priorities among Countermeasures,’’ Military Operations Research 7:4 (2002): 5–20. And see Bier, 2004.
50. Kirkwood, 1997.
51. Ibid.

52. Ibid.
53. Buckshaw et al., 2004.
54. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). 2003. Office of Domestic Preparedness: Special Needs Jurisdiction Toolkit.
55. Kirkwood, 1997.

F U R T H E R R E A D I N G
General Accounting Office (GAO). 2003a. Critical Infrastructure Protection: Challenges for Selected Agencies and Industry Sectors. GAO-03-233. Washington, D.C. (February).
GAO. 2003b. Homeland Security: Information Sharing Responsibilities, Challenges, and Key Management Issues. GAO-03-1165T. (17 September).
Haimes, Y. Y., Risk Modeling, Assessment, and Management (New York:Wiley, 1998).
Kaplan, S., ‘‘The Words of Risk Analysis,’’ Risk Analysis 17:4 (1997): 407–417
Kaplan, S., and B. J. Garrick, ‘‘On the Quantitative Definition of Risk,’’ Risk Analysis 1:1 (1981): 11–27.
Keeney, R. L., Value-Focused Thinking: A Path to Creative Decisionmaking (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992).
Pate´-Cornell, M. E., and P. S. Fischbeck.. ‘‘Risk Management for the Tiles of the Space Shuttle,’’ Interfaces 24 (1994): 64–86.
30. The Psychological Perception of Risk - Prof. Baruch Fischhoff

1. Fischhoff, B., R. Gonzalez, D. Small, and J. Lerner, ‘‘Evaluating the Success of Terror Risk Communication,’’ Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 1:4 (2003): 255–8.
2. Glass, T. A, ‘‘Understanding Public Response to Disasters,’’ Public Health Reports, Vol. 116 (Supplement 2) (2001): 69–73.
3. Cvetkovich, G., and R. Lo¨fstedt (eds.), Social Trust and the Management of Risk (London: Earthscan, 1999). Fischhoff, B., S. Lichtenstein, P. Slovic, S. L. Derby, and R. L. Keeney, Acceptable Risk (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Krimsky, S., and A. Plough (eds.), Environmental Hazards: Risk Communication as a Social Process (Dover, Mass.: Auburn House, 1988). Leiss, W., and C. Chociolko, Risk and Responsibility (Kingston and Montreal: Queens and McGill University Press, 1994).
4. National Research Council, Risk Management in the Federal Government (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1983).
5. National Research Council, Improving Risk Communication (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1989).
6. Fischhoff, B., S. Lichtenstein, P. Slovic, S. L. Derby, and R. L. Keeney, Acceptable Risk (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Fischhoff, B., P. Slovic, and S. Lichtenstein, ‘‘Lay Foibles and Expert Fables in Judgments about Risk,’’ American Statistician 36 (1983): 240–55. Fischhoff, B., A. Bostrom, and M. J. Quadrel, ‘‘Risk Perception and Communication,’’ in R. Detels, J. McEwen, R. Beaglehole, and H. Tanaka (eds.), Oxford Textbook of Public Health (London: Oxford University Press, 2002).
7. National Research Council, Understanding Risk (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996).
8. Fischhoff, B., S. Watson, and C. Hope, ‘‘Defining Risk,’’ Policy Sciences 17 (1984): 123–39.
9. Institute of Medicine, Scientific Opportunities and Public Needs (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998a).
10. Institute of Medicine, Toward Environmental Justice (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998b).
11. Health Canada, Canadian Pandemic Influenza Plan (Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada, 2004).
12. Clemen, R, Making Hard Decisions (Belmont, Calif.: Duxbury, 1996). Hastie, R., and R. M. Dawes, Rational Choice in an Uncertain World (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001).
13. Gilovich, T., D. Griffin, D. Kahneman (eds.), The Psychology of Judgment: Heuristics and Biases (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
14. Tengs, T. O. and A. Wallace, ‘‘One thousand health-related quality-of-life estimates,’’ Medical Care 38:6 (2000): 583–637.
15. Morgan, M. G., B. Fischhoff, A. Bostrom, and C. Atman, Risk Communication: The Mental Models Approach (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

16. Fischhoff, Baruch, ‘‘Giving Advice: Decision Theory Perspectives on Sexual Assault,’’ American Psychologist 47 (1992): 577–88. Fischhoff, Baruch, in press. ‘‘Decision Research Strategies.’’ Health Psychology.
17. Merz, J., B. Fischhoff, D. J. Mazur, and P. S. Fischbeck, ‘‘Decision-Analytic Approach to Developing Standards of Disclosure for Medical Informed Consent,’’ Journal of Toxics and Liability 15 (1993): 191–215.
18. Downs, J. S., P. J. Murray, W. Bruine de Bruin, J. P. White, C. Palmgren, and B. Fischhoff, ‘‘An Interactive Video Program to Reduce Adolescent Females’ STD Risk: A Randomized Controlled Trial,’’ Social Science and Medicine 59: 8 (2004): 1561–72.
19. Fischhoff, B., A. Bostrom, and M. J. Quadrel, ‘‘Risk Perception and Communication,’’ in R. Detels, J. McEwen, R. Beaglehole, and H. Tanaka (eds.), Oxford Textbook of Public Health (London: Oxford University Press, 2002). Slovic, P. (ed.). The Perception of Risk (London: Earthscan, 2001).
20. Gilovich, T., D. Griffin, D. Kahneman (eds.), The Psychology of Judgment: Heuristics and Biases (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002). Kahneman, D., P. Slovic, and A. Tversky (eds.), Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
21. Fischhoff, Baruch, in press. ‘‘Decision Research Strategies.’’ Health Psychology. Morgan, M. G., B. Fischhoff, A. Bostrom, and C. Atman, Risk Communication: The Mental Models Approach (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
22. Lerner, J. S., R. M. Gonzalez, D. A. Small, and B. Fischhoff, ‘‘Effects of Fear and Anger on Perceived Risks of Terrorism: A National Field Experiment,’’ Psychological Science 14 (2003): 144–150.
23. Fischhoff, Baruch, ‘‘Risk Perception and Communication Unplugged: Twenty Years of Process,’’ Risk Analysis 15 (1995): 137–45.
24. Fischhoff, B., R. Gonzalez, D. Small, and J. Lerner. ‘‘Evaluating the Success of Terror Risk Communication.’’ Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 1:4 (2003): 255–8. Thomas, P., The Anthrax Attacks (New York: Century Foundation,
2003).
25. Maharik, M., and B. Fischhoff, ‘‘Public Views of Using Nuclear Energy Sources in Space Missions,’’ Space Policy 9 (1993): 99–108. Morgan, M. G., B. Fischhoff, A. Bostrom, and C. Atman, Risk Communication: The Mental Models Approach (New York: Cambridge University Press. 2001).
26. Fischhoff, B., ‘‘Eliciting Knowledge for Analytical Representation,’’ IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics 13 (1989): 448–61. Fischhoff, B., ‘‘Scientific Management of Science?’’ Policy Sciences 33 (2000): 73–87. Morgan, M. G., and M. Henrion, Uncertainty (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
27. Casman, E., B. Fischhoff, C. Palmgren, M. Small, and F. Wu, ‘‘Integrated Risk Model of a Drinking Water-Borne Cryptosporidiosis Outbreak,’’ Risk Analysis 20 (2000): 493–509.
28. Clemen, R. Making Hard Decisions (Belmont, Calif.: Duxbury, 1996).
29. Gilovich, T., D. Griffin, D. Kahneman (eds.), The Psychology of Judgment: Heuristics and Biases (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
30. Thomas, P., The Anthrax Attacks (New York: Century Foundation, 2003).
31. Hastie, R., and R. M. Dawes, Rational Choice in an Uncertain World (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001).

B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Cabinet Office, Risk and Uncertainty (London: B. Fischhoff, 2002).
Canadian Standards Association, Risk Management Guidelines for Decision Makers (Q850) (Ottawa: B. Fischhoff, 1997).
Casman, E., B. Fischhoff, C. Palmgren, M. Small, and F. Wu, ‘‘Integrated Risk Model of a Drinking Water-Borne Cryptosporidiosis Outbreak,’’ Risk Analysis 20 (2000): 493–509.
Clemen, R., Making Hard Decisions (Belmont, Calif.: Duxbury, 1996).
Cvetkovich, G., and R. Lo¨fstedt (eds.), Social Trust and the Management of Risk (London: Earthscan, 1999).
Downs, J. S., P. J. Murray, W. Bruine de Bruin, J. P. White, C. Palmgren, and
B. Fischhoff, ‘‘An Interactive Video Program to Reduce Adolescent Females’ STD Risk: A Randomized Controlled Trial,’’ Social Science and Medicine 59:8 (2004): 1561–72.
Environmental Protection Agency, Toward Integrated Environmental Decision Making (SAB-EC-00-011) (Washington, D.C.: B. Fischhoff, 2000).
Fischhoff, B., ‘‘Eliciting Knowledge for Analytical Representation,’’ IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics 13 (1989): 448–61.
—. ‘‘Giving Advice: Decision Theory Perspectives on Sexual Assault,’’ American Psychologist 47 (1992): 577–88.
—. ‘‘Risk Perception and Communication Unplugged: Twenty Years of Process,’’ Risk Analysis 15 (1995): 137–45.
—. ‘‘Scientific Management of Science?’’ Policy Sciences 33 (2000): 73–87.
—. In press. ‘‘Decision Research Strategies,’’ Health Psychology. Fischhoff, B., A. Bostrom, and M. J. Quadrel, ‘‘Risk Perception and Communication,’’ in R. Detels, J. McEwen, R. Beaglehole, and H. Tanaka (eds.), Oxford Textbook of Public Health (London: Oxford University Press, 2002).
Fischhoff, B., R. Gonzalez, D. Small, and J. Lerner, ‘‘Evaluating the Success of Terror Risk Communication,’’ Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 1:4 (2003): 255–8.
Fischhoff, B., S. Lichtenstein, P. Slovic, S. L. Derby, and R. L. Keeney, Acceptable Risk (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
Fischhoff, B., P. Slovic, and S. Lichtenstein, ‘‘Lay Foibles and Expert Fables in Judgments about Risk,’’ American Statistician 36 (1983): 240–55.
Fischhoff, B., S. Watson, and C. Hope, ‘‘Defining Risk,’’ Policy Sciences 17 (1984): 123–39.
Gilovich, T., D. Griffin, D. Kahneman (eds.), The Psychology of Judgment: Heuristics and Biases (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
Glass, T. A., ‘‘Understanding Public Response to Disasters,’’ Public Health Reports 116 (Supplement 2) (2001): 69–73.
Hastie, R., and R. M. Dawes, Rational Choice in an Uncertain World (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2001).
Health Canada, Canadian Pandemic Influenza Plan (Ottawa: Public Health Agency
of Canada, 2004).

Health and Safety Executive, Reducing Risks, Protecting People (London: B. Fischhoff, Author, 1999).
Kahneman, D., P. Slovic, and A. Tversky (eds.), Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
Institute of Medicine, Scientific Opportunities and Public Needs (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998a).
—. Toward Environmental Justice (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998b).
Lerner, J. S., R. M. Gonzalez, D. A. Small, and B. Fischhoff, ‘‘Effects of Fear and Anger on Perceived Risks of Terrorism: A National Field Experiment,’’ Psychological Science 14 (2003): 144–50.
Krimsky, S., and A. Plough (eds.), Environmental Hazards: Risk Communication as a Social Process (Dover, Mass.: Auburn House, 1988).
Leiss, W., and C. Chociolko, Risk and Responsibility (Kingston and Montreal: Queens and McGill University Press, 1994).
Maharik, M., and B. Fischhoff, ‘‘Public Views of Using Nuclear Energy Sources in Space Missions,’’ Space Policy 9 (1993): 99–108.
Merz, J., B. Fischhoff, D. J. Mazur, and P. S. Fischbeck, ‘‘Decision-Analytic Approach to Developing Standards of Disclosure for Medical Informed Consent,’’ Journal of Toxics and Liability 15 (1993): 191–215.
Morgan, M. G., B. Fischhoff, A. Bostrom, and C. Atman, Risk Communication: The Mental Models Approach (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
Morgan, M. G., and M. Henrion, Uncertainty (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
National Research Council, Risk Management in the Federal Government (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1983).
—. Improving Risk Communication (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1989).
—. Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994).
—. Understanding Risk (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1996).
Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, Open Channels: Public Dialogues in Science and Technology (London: House of Commons, 2001).
Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk, Risk Management (Washington, D.C.: B. Fischhoff, 1998).
Royal Commission on Environmental Protection, Setting Environmental Standards (London: B. Fischhoff, 1998).
Slovic, P. (ed.), The Perception of Risk (London: Earthscan, 2001).
Tengs, T. O., and A. Wallace, ‘‘One thousand health-related quality-of-life estimates,’’ Medical Care 38:6 (2000): 583–637. Thomas, P., The Anthrax Attacks (New York: Century Foundation, 2003).
Tierney, K., ‘‘Disaster Beliefs and Institutional Interests: Recycling Disaster Myths in the Aftermath of 9–11,’’ in L. Clarke (ed.), Research in Social Problems and Public Policy 11 (St. Louis, Mo.: Elsevier, 2003).
Treasury Board, Communications Policy of the Government of Canada (Ottawa:
B. Fischhoff, 2002).

31. The Homeland Security Advisory System - James Jay Carafano

1. White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security (2002), pp. 15–46.
2. Presidential Homeland Security Directive–3, March 2002, at www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/03/20020312-5.html .
3. Public Law 107-296, Sec. 201.
4. Presidential Homeland Security Directive–3, March 2002, at www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/03/20020312-5.html .
5. For concerns over the TTIC’s current operations, see Second Report of the Markle Foundation Task Force, Creating a Trusted Network for Homeland Security (2003), p. 3.
6. James Jay Carafano and Ha Nguyen, ‘‘Better Intelligence Sharing for Visa Issuance and Monitoring: An Imperative for Homeland Security,’’ Heritage Foundation Backgrounder No. 1699, (27 October 2003), at www.heritage.org / Research/HomelandDefense/BG1699.cfm.
7. James Jay Carafano, ‘‘Homeland Security Grant Bill Needs Revision, but a Step in the Right Direction,’’ Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum No. 909 (8 January 2004), at www.heritage.org/Research/HomelandDefense/EM909.cfm .
8. James Jay Carafano and Ha Nguyen, ‘‘Warning: We Need a Better Warning System,’’ Commentary (8 January 2004), at www.heritage.org/Press/Commentary/ed010804a.cfm .
9. ‘‘Advisory Panel to Assess Domestic Response Capabilities for Terrorism Involving Weapons of Mass Destruction,’’ Forging America’s New Normalcy: Securing Our Homeland, Preserving Our Liberty, Fifth Annual Report to the President and the Congress, Vol. 5 (15 December 2003), p. D-7-2, at www.rand.org/nsrd/terrpanel/volume_v/volume_v.pdf .
10. Russell. R. Dynes et al., ‘‘Disaster Analysis: Local Emergency Management Offices and Arrangements,’’ Final Report, No. 34, University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center, 1986.
11. For example, the U.S. Conference of Mayors estimates the cost at approximately $70 million per week. New York City spends about $5 million per week when the alert level is raised. Boston estimated its costs at about $100,000 per day.
12. GAO Report, ‘‘Homeland Security: Communication Protocols and Risk Communication Principles Can Assist in Refining the Advisory System,’’ pp. 36–7.
13. Kathleen J. Turner et al., Facing the Unexpected: Disaster Preparedness and Response in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press, 2001), p. 30.
14. Ibid., pp. 167–88.
15. Advisory Panel to Assess Domestic Response Capabilities for Terrorism Involving Weapons of Mass Destruction, Forging America’s New Normalcy: Securing Our Homeland, Preserving Our Liberty, p. 27.
16. For concerns and recommendations on revising the system, see ibid., pp. 27 D-1 and D-7-2.
17. GAO Report, ‘‘Homeland Security: Communication Protocols and Risk Communication Principles Can Assist in Refining the Advisory System,’’ p. 40.
18. Eve Gruntfest and Kim Carsell, The Warning Process: Toward an Understanding of False Alarms, at http://www.udfcd.org/FWP/LFWSresearch.htm .
19. Partnership for Public Warning, ‘‘The Emergency Alert System (EAS): An Assessment,’’ PPW Report 2004-1 (February 2004).
20. For an overview of homeland security training and education programs, see James Jay Carafano, ‘‘Homeland Security and the Trouble with Training,’’ CSBA Backgrounder (3 October 2002).
32. Now the News: The Uneasy Peace between Homeland Security and Broadcasting - Frank Sesno